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The Gendered Impacts of Perceived Skin Tone: Evidence from African American Siblings in 1870-1940

Ran Abramitzky, Jacob Conway, Roy Mill, Luke C.D. Stein · 2026 · arXiv (Cornell University)

DOI: 10.48550/arxiv.2610.10606 · cited by 0 works (OpenAlex) · open-access PDF

German

Wir untersuchten die Unterschiede in den wirtschaftlichen Ergebnissen durch den wahrgenommenen Hautton unter afrikanischen Amerikanern mithilfe der vollständigen Zählung der US-Zehnjährigen Volkszählungsdaten aus dem späten 19. und frühen 20. Jahrhundert. Durch den Vergleich von Kindern, die als "Black" oder "Mulatto" durch Volkszählungszählungen codiert wurden, und indem wir diese Kinder über Bevölkerungszählungen hinweg verknüpften, dokumentieren wir zuerst große Lücken in den Bildungsergebnissen und Einkommen unter afrikanischen Amerikanern mit dunkleren und leichteren wahrgenommenen Hauttonen. Um die Treiber dieser Lücken zu lösen, identifizieren wir alle 35,992 Familien, in denen die Enumeratoren gleichgeschlechtlichen Geschwistern unterschiedliche Black

Machine translation (Meta M2M100); the English original follows.

Abstract

We study differences in economic outcomes by perceived skin tone among African Americans using full-count U.S. decennial census data from the late-19th and early-20th centuries. Comparing children coded as "Black" or "Mulatto" by census enumerators and linking these children across population censuses, we first document large gaps in educational attainment and income among African Americans with darker and lighter perceived skin tones. To disentangle the drivers of these gaps, we identify all 35,992 families in which enumerators assigned same-gender siblings different Black/Mulatto classifications. Relative to sisters coded as Mulatto, sisters coded as Black had lower educational attainment, were less likely to marry, and had less-educated, likely lower-earning husbands. These patterns are consistent with more severe contemporaneous discrimination against African American women with darker perceived skin tones. In contrast, we find similar educational attainment, marital outcomes, and incomes among differently-classified brothers. Men perceived as African Americans of any skin tone faced similar contemporaneous discrimination, consistent with the "one-drop" racial classification rule that grouped together individuals with any known Black ancestry. Lower incomes for African American men perceived as having darker skin tone in the general population were driven by differences in opportunities and resources that varied across families, likely reflecting the impacts of historical or family-level discrimination.

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Topics: Educational attainment, African american, Census, Demography, Population, Psychology

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